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The
Emperor of China () refers to any monarch of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in
221 BC until the fall of the
Qing Dynasty in 1912. When referred to as the
Son of Heaven (天子), a title created in the late Shang dynasty, the Emperor was recognized as the ruler of "All under heaven" (i.e., the world). In practice though not every Emperor was the holder of the highest power of his land, though this was largely the case.
Most of China's imperial rulers have commonly been considered members of the Han Chinese ethnicity, although recent scholarship tends to be careful about the dangers of applying current ethnic categories to historical situations. During the Yuan Dynasty and
Qing Dynasty dynasties China was ruled by ethnic Mongolians and Manchurians respectively. A prominent historical view over the years sees these dynasties as non-native dynasties that were
sinicized over time, while more recent writers argue that the interaction between politics and ethnicity was far more complex Sinicization vs. Manchuness: The Success of Manchu Rule.
Origin and history
The pre-Qin monarchs were called
Chinese nobility (王, roughly translated as
King). In 221 BC, after the then
Qin Shi Huang completed the conquest of the various kingdoms of the Warring States, he adopted a new title to reflect his prestige as a ruler greater than the kings before him. He created the new title
Huangdi or "
Emperor", and styled himself
Shi Huangdi, the First Emperor. Before this, the words
Huang (皇, figuratively "god-king") and
Di (帝, figuratively "sage-king") were used separately and never together consecutively (see
Three August Ones and Five Emperors). After the
Han Dynasty,
Huangdi began to be abbreviated to
Huang or
Di ( this is where the name of the han emperor known as wu di comes from)—the two words had lost their original pre-Qin meanings and simply meant
emperor.
Chinese political theory does not outright discourage or prevent the rule of non-royals or foreigners under the title of the "Emperor of China". Historically, China has been divided numerous times into smaller kingdoms under separate rulers or warlords. The Emperor in most cases was the ruler of a united China, or must at least claim legitimate rule over all of China if they do not have
de facto control. There have been a number of instances where there has been more than one "Emperor of All China" simultaneously in Chinese history. For example, various Ming Dynasty princes continued to claim the title after the founding of the
Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), and
Wu Sangui claimed the title during the
Kangxi Emperor's reign. In dynasties founded by foreign conquering tribes who eventually found themselves immersed into Chinese culture, politics, and society, the rulers would also take on the title of
Emperor of China in addition to whatever titles they may have had from their original homeland. The most prominent example is Kublai Khan, who was both Great Khan of the Mongols and the Emperor of China.
Position and power
Since the Qin Dynasty, the Emperor of China was formally called the Son of Heaven (天子), and as the descendant and representative of Heaven on Earth, he legally had absolute power over all matters, big or small, under Heaven (天下). His mandate to rule is thought to be divine and predestined. In contrast to modern international relationships, the Emperor of China was seen in East Asia not merely as the head of one nation-state among many, but rather as the overlord of the entire civilized world, meaning there could only be one legitimate emperor in the world at any given time.
The emperor's words and directives were considered Sacred Edicts (聖旨), and his directions from writing are considered "directives from above" (上谕). In theory, the emperor's orders were to be followed with immediate obedience. He was elevated above all commoners, nobility, and members of the imperial family. Addresses to the emperor were always to be formal and self-deprecatory, even by the closest of family members.
In practice, however, the power of the emperor varied between different emperors and different Chinese dynasties. Generally, in the Chinese dynastic cycle, Emperors founding a dynasty usually consolidated the empire through
autocracy, as evidenced in Emperors
Qin Shihuang of the
Qin Dynasty, Li Shimin of the
Tang Dynasty,
Kublai Khan of the
Yuan Dynasty, and Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty. These emperors ruled as
absolute monarchs throughout their reign, maintaining a centralized grip on the country. During the Song Dynasty, the Emperor's power was significantly overshadowed by the power of the
chancellor of China.
The Emperor's position, unless deposed in a rebellion, is always hereditary usually by agnatic primogeniture. As a result, there are many cases where a child Emperor ascends the throne when his father dies. When this occurs, the
Empress Dowager, or the Emperor's mother, is in a position of significant power. In fact, the vast majority of female rulers during the entirety of Chinese Imperial history has come to power through this means; prominent examples include the Empress Lu of the Han Dynasty and the
Empress Dowager Cixi of the
Qing Dynasty. If the Empress Dowager is unable to, or is too weak to assume power, court officials usually seize control. The presence of eunuchs in the court is also important in the power structure, as the Emperor usually relied on a few eunuchs as confidants, and they had access to many court documents; there are cases where eunuchs wielded absolute power, most prominent was the rule of eunuch Wei Zhongxian during the
Ming Dynasty. The only other scenario is when the nobility or other family members assume power as regents. In addition, the effective area ruled by the Emperor of China varied from dynasty to dynasty. In some cases, such as during the Southern Song dynasty, political power in East Asia was effectively split among several governments, however the political fiction that the head of one of these states was the legitimate emperor to which the other states owed allegiance was maintained.
Heredity and succession
The title of
emperor was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is passed onto a younger brother, should the deceased Emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties, the eldest son born to the
Empress of China (嫡長子) succeeded the throne. In some cases when the empress did not bear any children, she adopted a son as her own (all children of the emperor were said to also be the children of the empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the empress' eldest son was disputed, and because many emperors had large numbers of progeny, often led to wars of succession between rival sons. In attempts to resolve disputes after death, the emperor often designated a Crown Prince (太子) in early times. Even such a clear designation, however, caused problems within the imperial family involving jealousy and distrust, whether it was the crown prince plotting against the emperor, or brothers plotting against each other, and did not actually ensure a peaceful succession. Some emperors, like the Yongzheng Emperor, after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death.
Unlike, for example, the Japanese monarchy, Chinese political theory allowed for a change of dynasty as ruling houses could be replaced. This was based on the concept of the Confucian "Mandate of Heaven". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the "Son of Heaven." As the only legitimate ruler, his authority extended to "all under heaven" and had neighbors only in a geographical sense. He held a mandate to which he had a valid claim to rule over everyone else in the world--as long as he served the people well. If the ruler became immoral, or other natural disasters such as repeated flood or famine showed that the mandate of heaven may have expired, then rebellion was justified and heaven would take away that mandate and give it to another. This important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties.
This principle, together with the examination system, made it possible for even peasants to found a new dynasty, such as
Han dynasty and
Ming Dynasty, or conquest dynasties such as the Mongol-led
Yuan Dynasty and Manchu-led Qing Dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the "Mandate of Heaven." Every dynasty self-consciously adopted this administrative practice, which powerfully reinforced this Sinocentric concept throughout the history of imperial China. Historians noted that this was one of the key reasons why imperial China in many ways had the most efficient system of government in ancient times.
In the history of China there had only been one lawful reigning empress,
Wu Zetian, Empress of China of the
Tang dynasty. Many females, however, did become
de facto leaders, usually as Empress Dowager. Prominent examples include Empress Dowager Cixi, mother of the Tongzhi Emperor (1861-1874), and aunt and adoptive mother of the
Guangxu Emperor (1874-1908), who ruled China for 47 years (1861-1908), and the Empress Dowager Lü of the Han Dynasty.
Styles, names and forms of address
To see naming conventions in detail, please refer to Chinese sovereignAs the emperor had, by law, a high position challenged by no one else, his subjects were to show the utmost respect in his presence, whether in direct conversation or otherwise. In a conversation with the emperor, it was considered a crime to compare oneself to the emperor in any way. It was taboo to refer to the emperor by his given name, even if it came from his own mother, who instead was to use
Huangdi (Emperor), or simply
Er ("son"). The emperor was never to be addressed as
you. The emperor referred to himself as
Zhen (朕), the royal "pluralis majestatis", in front of his subjects, a practice reserved solely for the emperor. Anyone who spoke to the emperor was to address him as
Bixia (陛下), corresponding to "Your Imperial Majesty",
Huang Shang (皇上, lit.
Emperor Above or Emperor Highness),
tian zi (天子, lit.
the son of heaven ), or
Sheng Shang (聖上, lit.
the Divine Above or the Holy Highness). Servants often addressed the emperor as
Wan Sui Ye (萬歲爺, lit.
Lord of Ten Thousand Years).
Contrary to the Western convention of referring to a sovereign using a reign name (e.g. George V) or by a personal name (e.g. Queen Victoria), a governing emperor was to be referred to as simply
Huangdi Bixia (皇帝陛下,
His Majesty the Emperor) or
Dangjin Huangshang (當今皇上,
The Imperial Highness of the Present Time) when spoken about in the third person. He was usually styled
His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the Great Dynasty, Son of Heaven, Lord of Ten Thousand Years. His styles varied considerably during the
Yuan Dynasty and
Qing Dynasty.
An emperor also ruled with an
Chinese era name (年號). Up until the Ming Dynasty, the sovereign conventionally changed the era name on a semi-regular basis during his reign. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, emperors simply chose one era name for their entire reign, and people often referred to past emperors with that title. In earlier dynasties, the emperors were known with a temple name (廟號) given after their death. All emperors were also given a
posthumous name (謚號), which was sometimes combined with the temple name (e.g. Emperor Shengzuren 聖祖仁皇帝 for
Kangxi) or
Daxing Huangdi (大行皇帝) to refer to an emperor that had just died. The passing of an emperor was referred to as
jiabeng (駕崩, lit. "collapse").
Family
The imperial family was made up of the emperor as the head and the Empress of China (皇后) as the primary consort and Mother of the Nation (國母). In addition, the emperor had a series of other consorts and
concubines (妃嬪) divided in a system of ranks who made up the harem (household), of which the empress was the leader. Every dynasty had its set of rules regarding the numerical make up of the harem. During the
Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), for example, imperial convention dictated that at any given time there should be one Empress, one
Huang Guifei, two
Guifei, four
fei and six
pin, in addition to an unlimited number of other consorts and concubines. Although the emperor had the highest status by law, by tradition and precedent the mother of the emperor,
i.e., the Empress Dowager (皇太后), usually received the greatest respect in the palace and was the decision maker in most family affairs, and at times, especially when a young emperor was on the throne, became the
de facto ruler. The emperor's children, the princes (王子) and princesses (公主), were often referred to by their order of birth,
e.g., Eldest Prince, Third Princess, etc. The princes were often given titles of peerage once they reached adulthood. The emperor's brothers and uncles served in court by law, with the status of any other court official (子), and the emperor was always elevated above them despite any chronological or generational superiority.
References
See also
The
Emperor of China () refers to any monarch of Imperial
China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in
221 BC until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912. When referred to as the
Son of Heaven (天子), a title created in the late Shang dynasty, the Emperor was recognized as the ruler of "All under heaven" (i.e., the world). In practice though not every Emperor was the holder of the highest power of his land, though this was largely the case.
Most of China's imperial rulers have commonly been considered members of the Han Chinese ethnicity, although recent scholarship tends to be careful about the dangers of applying current ethnic categories to historical situations. During the Yuan Dynasty and
Qing Dynasty dynasties China was ruled by ethnic Mongolians and Manchurians respectively. A prominent historical view over the years sees these dynasties as non-native dynasties that were sinicized over time, while more recent writers argue that the interaction between politics and ethnicity was far more complex Sinicization vs. Manchuness: The Success of Manchu Rule.
Origin and history
The pre-Qin monarchs were called
Chinese nobility (王, roughly translated as
King). In 221 BC, after the then Qin Shi Huang completed the conquest of the various kingdoms of the Warring States, he adopted a new title to reflect his prestige as a ruler greater than the kings before him. He created the new title
Huangdi or "
Emperor", and styled himself
Shi Huangdi, the First Emperor. Before this, the words
Huang (皇, figuratively "god-king") and
Di (帝, figuratively "sage-king") were used separately and never together consecutively (see
Three August Ones and Five Emperors). After the
Han Dynasty,
Huangdi began to be
abbreviated to
Huang or
Di ( this is where the name of the han emperor known as wu di comes from)—the two words had lost their original pre-Qin meanings and simply meant
emperor.
Chinese political theory does not outright discourage or prevent the rule of non-royals or foreigners under the title of the "Emperor of China". Historically, China has been divided numerous times into smaller kingdoms under separate rulers or warlords. The Emperor in most cases was the ruler of a united China, or must at least claim legitimate rule over all of China if they do not have
de facto control. There have been a number of instances where there has been more than one "Emperor of All China" simultaneously in Chinese history. For example, various Ming Dynasty princes continued to claim the title after the founding of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), and Wu Sangui claimed the title during the Kangxi Emperor's reign. In dynasties founded by foreign conquering tribes who eventually found themselves immersed into Chinese culture, politics, and society, the rulers would also take on the title of
Emperor of China in addition to whatever titles they may have had from their original homeland. The most prominent example is Kublai Khan, who was both Great Khan of the Mongols and the Emperor of China.
Position and power
Since the Qin Dynasty, the Emperor of China was formally called the Son of Heaven (天子), and as the descendant and representative of Heaven on Earth, he legally had absolute power over all matters, big or small, under Heaven (天下). His mandate to rule is thought to be divine and predestined. In contrast to modern international relationships, the Emperor of China was seen in East Asia not merely as the head of one nation-state among many, but rather as the overlord of the entire civilized world, meaning there could only be one legitimate emperor in the world at any given time.
The emperor's words and directives were considered
Sacred Edicts (聖旨), and his directions from writing are considered "directives from above" (上谕). In theory, the emperor's orders were to be followed with immediate obedience. He was elevated above all commoners, nobility, and members of the imperial family. Addresses to the emperor were always to be formal and self-deprecatory, even by the closest of family members.
In practice, however, the power of the emperor varied between different emperors and different Chinese dynasties. Generally, in the Chinese
dynastic cycle, Emperors founding a dynasty usually consolidated the empire through
autocracy, as evidenced in Emperors Qin Shihuang of the Qin Dynasty, Li Shimin of the
Tang Dynasty,
Kublai Khan of the
Yuan Dynasty, and
Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty. These emperors ruled as
absolute monarchs throughout their reign, maintaining a centralized grip on the country. During the Song Dynasty, the Emperor's power was significantly overshadowed by the power of the chancellor of China.
The Emperor's position, unless deposed in a rebellion, is always hereditary usually by
agnatic primogeniture. As a result, there are many cases where a child Emperor ascends the throne when his father dies. When this occurs, the Empress Dowager, or the Emperor's mother, is in a position of significant power. In fact, the vast majority of female rulers during the entirety of Chinese Imperial history has come to power through this means; prominent examples include the Empress Lu of the Han Dynasty and the
Empress Dowager Cixi of the Qing Dynasty. If the Empress Dowager is unable to, or is too weak to assume power, court officials usually seize control. The presence of eunuchs in the court is also important in the power structure, as the Emperor usually relied on a few eunuchs as confidants, and they had access to many court documents; there are cases where eunuchs wielded absolute power, most prominent was the rule of eunuch Wei Zhongxian during the Ming Dynasty. The only other scenario is when the nobility or other family members assume power as
regents. In addition, the effective area ruled by the Emperor of China varied from dynasty to dynasty. In some cases, such as during the Southern Song dynasty, political power in East Asia was effectively split among several governments, however the political fiction that the head of one of these states was the legitimate emperor to which the other states owed allegiance was maintained.
Heredity and succession
The title of
emperor was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is passed onto a younger brother, should the deceased Emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties, the eldest son born to the Empress of China (嫡長子) succeeded the throne. In some cases when the empress did not bear any children, she adopted a son as her own (all children of the emperor were said to also be the children of the empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the empress' eldest son was disputed, and because many emperors had large numbers of progeny, often led to wars of succession between rival sons. In attempts to resolve disputes after death, the emperor often designated a
Crown Prince (太子) in early times. Even such a clear designation, however, caused problems within the imperial family involving jealousy and distrust, whether it was the crown prince plotting against the emperor, or brothers plotting against each other, and did not actually ensure a peaceful succession. Some emperors, like the
Yongzheng Emperor, after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death.
Unlike, for example, the Japanese monarchy, Chinese political theory allowed for a change of dynasty as ruling houses could be replaced. This was based on the concept of the Confucian "Mandate of Heaven". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the "Son of Heaven." As the only legitimate ruler, his authority extended to "all under heaven" and had neighbors only in a geographical sense. He held a mandate to which he had a valid claim to rule over everyone else in the world--as long as he served the people well. If the ruler became immoral, or other natural disasters such as repeated flood or famine showed that the mandate of heaven may have expired, then rebellion was justified and heaven would take away that mandate and give it to another. This important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties.
This principle, together with the examination system, made it possible for even peasants to found a new dynasty, such as Han dynasty and Ming Dynasty, or conquest dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty and Manchu-led Qing Dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the "Mandate of Heaven." Every dynasty self-consciously adopted this administrative practice, which powerfully reinforced this Sinocentric concept throughout the history of imperial China. Historians noted that this was one of the key reasons why imperial China in many ways had the most efficient system of government in ancient times.
In the history of China there had only been one lawful reigning empress, Wu Zetian, Empress of China of the
Tang dynasty. Many females, however, did become
de facto leaders, usually as Empress Dowager. Prominent examples include
Empress Dowager Cixi, mother of the Tongzhi Emperor (1861-1874), and aunt and adoptive mother of the Guangxu Emperor (1874-1908), who ruled China for 47 years (1861-1908), and the
Empress Dowager Lü of the Han Dynasty.
Styles, names and forms of address
To see naming conventions in detail, please refer to Chinese sovereignAs the emperor had, by law, a high position challenged by no one else, his subjects were to show the utmost respect in his presence, whether in direct conversation or otherwise. In a conversation with the emperor, it was considered a crime to compare oneself to the emperor in any way. It was taboo to refer to the emperor by his given name, even if it came from his own mother, who instead was to use
Huangdi (Emperor), or simply
Er ("son"). The emperor was never to be addressed as
you. The emperor referred to himself as
Zhen (朕), the royal "pluralis majestatis", in front of his subjects, a practice reserved solely for the emperor. Anyone who spoke to the emperor was to address him as
Bixia (陛下), corresponding to "Your Imperial Majesty",
Huang Shang (皇上, lit.
Emperor Above or Emperor Highness),
tian zi (天子, lit.
the son of heaven ), or
Sheng Shang (聖上, lit.
the Divine Above or the Holy Highness). Servants often addressed the emperor as
Wan Sui Ye (萬歲爺, lit.
Lord of Ten Thousand Years).
Contrary to the Western convention of referring to a sovereign using a reign name (e.g. George V) or by a personal name (e.g. Queen Victoria), a governing emperor was to be referred to as simply
Huangdi Bixia (皇帝陛下,
His Majesty the Emperor) or
Dangjin Huangshang (當今皇上,
The Imperial Highness of the Present Time) when spoken about in the third person. He was usually styled
His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the Great Dynasty, Son of Heaven, Lord of Ten Thousand Years. His styles varied considerably during the Yuan Dynasty and Qing Dynasty.
An emperor also ruled with an
Chinese era name (年號). Up until the Ming Dynasty, the sovereign conventionally changed the era name on a semi-regular basis during his reign. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, emperors simply chose one era name for their entire reign, and people often referred to past emperors with that title. In earlier dynasties, the emperors were known with a temple name (廟號) given after their death. All emperors were also given a posthumous name (謚號), which was sometimes combined with the temple name (e.g. Emperor Shengzuren 聖祖仁皇帝 for Kangxi) or
Daxing Huangdi (大行皇帝) to refer to an emperor that had just died. The passing of an emperor was referred to as
jiabeng (駕崩, lit. "collapse").
Family
The imperial family was made up of the emperor as the head and the
Empress of China (皇后) as the primary consort and Mother of the Nation (國母). In addition, the emperor had a series of other consorts and concubines (妃嬪) divided in a system of ranks who made up the harem (household), of which the empress was the leader. Every dynasty had its set of rules regarding the numerical make up of the harem. During the
Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), for example, imperial convention dictated that at any given time there should be one Empress, one
Huang Guifei, two
Guifei, four
fei and six
pin, in addition to an unlimited number of other consorts and concubines. Although the emperor had the highest status by law, by tradition and precedent the mother of the emperor,
i.e., the Empress Dowager (皇太后), usually received the greatest respect in the palace and was the decision maker in most family affairs, and at times, especially when a young emperor was on the throne, became the
de facto ruler. The emperor's children, the princes (王子) and princesses (公主), were often referred to by their order of birth,
e.g., Eldest Prince, Third Princess, etc. The princes were often given titles of peerage once they reached adulthood. The emperor's brothers and uncles served in court by law, with the status of any other court official (子), and the emperor was always elevated above them despite any chronological or generational superiority.
References
See also
